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Anthropological Information in Early 
American Writings. 

BY 

JOSEPH D. McGUIRE. 



There is scarcely a work relating to early European contact 
with the Indian which does not contain references valuable to 
the anthropologist. Tbi avail one's self of this requires great 
labor, owing to its being scattered through many volumes, as the 
writer has experienced in his studies of the evolution of tools 
and of their uses. Early publications supplied information which 
would now be chiefly contained in popular magazines and the 
daily press. 

Modern studies in Anthropology and Archeology give new 
interest to this material as an aid to the interpretation of the 
manners and customs, myths, ceremonies, arms, implements, etc., 
of the Indians, compared with similar things among other races. 

These works are so numerous that one must spend years in 
research before he can be satisfied that he has made proper in- 
vestigation of the authors who have referred to this subject. 
Such material should, however, be within reach of all. The writer 
has made a beginning which it is hoped may be continued to 
completion. Through the courtesy oif the Bureau of American 
Ethnology and its officers, and by use of its facilities, an amount 
of data has been gathered sufficient to demonstrate the value 
of the work. To obtain the best results there should be made a 
collection, on library cards of uniform size, of extracts from pub- 
lications which refer to first or early contact with the Indian. 
Their headings should comprise the subject-matter of the card, 
the period to which it relates, the locality referred to, and the 
author quoted, and be numbered. The body of the cards contain 
the subject-matter, and will average from 75 to 100 words each. 
The title of the work quoted, its place of publication, date, page 
and volume completes the card. As it is impossible to confine 



1 8 INTERNATIONA!, CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS 

the cards to a single subject they should be indexed by card 
numbers to make them readily accessible to all. 

The discovery of i^merica was the beginning of a series of 
voyages continuing over three centuries, during which Spanish, 
Portugese, Dutch, French and English struggled for mastery. 
The products of the early expeditions were preyed upon by pirates 
of all nations, chiefly French and English, who often landed and 
ravaged the settlements. The immense wealth of the country 
only became known after centuries. Products of the forests, 
of the mines, and of the waters amounting to many millions of 
ounces in value yearly taken during the first half century after 
the discovery, even followed later by agricultural products; the 
latter period was supplemented by the fisheries and fur products, 
each increasing in yearly value. The fabulous wealth obtained 
led to enormous immigration and great extravagances among 
the colonists, which were considered so pernicious as to be limited 
by royal decree. 

Native trade was first by exchange of presents of small value 
from the Europeans, for metal objects, trinkets or food. This 
source becoming exhausted the natives themselves and their lands 
were partitioned among the Europeans. Insufficient food and 
ignorance of the effects of the changes thereby wrought in native 
life led to disease and terrible mortality. This in its turn was 
succeeded by a period of slave hunting, when the dog and the 
branding iron were employed to catch and mark slaves, to fill the 
gaps caused by deaths due to ignorance and cruel treatment of 
those already enslaved. Overloading native carriers, owing to 
the absence of pack animals, was one of the chief causes which 
led to restrictive laws being passed by the Spanish council of the 
Indies, which was always solicitous in protecting the natives, 
but these laws were ignored whenever possible. Accounts of the 
numbers of dogs, hogs and slaves taken along in early expeditions 
cause astonishment. The first slaves were Moors from Northern 
Africa ; these were soon added to by the products of the African 
slave trade, which assumed enormous proportions as the native 
supply became exhausted. 

It is notable how often the negro is referred to in descriptions 
of early travels, and there are many accounts of cruelties inflicted 
on him which drove him to the woods. These descriptions are 
scattered through all the languages of Europe, and early American 



INTERNATIONAL CONCRESS 01? AMERICANISTS 



19 



publications are full of relations of struggles for supremacy be- 
tween the early settlers on both continents, in which the natives 
are invariably shown to have been made a convenience. 

Supremacy in commerce to the European was the common cause 
of war, while the native found a more important cause in en- 
croachments on his hunting grounds. 

With the increase of foreign population, publications multiplied ; 
authors were usually men of intimate acquaintance with the 
native and had lived with him for years; many of the most in- 
teresting accounts are those of members of holy orders, to whom 
the country had become a second home. Many early publications 
have been liberally quoted by authorities, but comparatively little 
has been accomplished in systematic compilation of references. 
The vast territory extending over one hundred and thirty degrees 
of latitude contained but a single type of individual, though they 
varied in development from lower savagery to higher barbarism, 
the larger part nomads, though there were others of sedentary 
habits, having governmental organization. These people were 
living in a pure age of stone, and used implements of a primitive 
type. 

The colonists found a simple and docile race almost without 
exception; the native at first considered the European as a supe- 
rioir creature whose rapacity, however, soon stamped himi as an 
oppressor, war being the natural result, which was waged bitterly. 
It is difficult to determine whether the arms of the whites or in- 
toxicants sold by them destroyed most lives. 

The Amerind survives in certain localities, and his manners 
and customs are commonly modified by foreign influences. Yet 
in rare instances there remain communities, the study of which 
has produced results of extreme value in understanding the de- 
velopment of the human race. 

Environment has influenced enormously the lives of all peoples, 
and is especially notable where fish are abundant, or skins are 
common, and in the region of the red wood and birch bark, and 
where the buffalo, elk and moose roam, where there are shell 
fish and Crustacea, acorns or nuts, fruit, natural or cultivated, 
of corn, tapioca and cocoa; in the country of the llama, and of 
certain bird abundance, both north and south. Where food was 
scarce population was never dense. 

The study of mounds, terraces, shell heaps, enclosures, stone 



20 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS 

heaps, stone graves, palisaded towns, ball grounds, cisterns and 
ponds, highways, obelisks and posts give rise to discussion. Who 
made and used them ? What is their origin ? Can they be traced 
to other countries, where they possess similar remains, or are they 
the results of development from a lesser to a higher stage of cul- 
ture? To the first settler the native was like any other obstacle, 
and was removed or made use of, as occasion required; he was 
an ally in war, whose skill in the canoe, whose knowledge in 
woodcraft, in signaling by means of smoke and other devices, 
were valuable aids in a campaign; when, however, this ceased 
the native, especially in Latin America, was treated with great 
severity, leading often to disastrous results. The value attaching 
to early publications varies with different authors, and can onlv 
be estimated by comparing them with others referring to the same 
subject. Care must be taken where natives refer to European 
oppression, or where the European refers to native treachery and 
dishonesty. 

Comparative studies concerning the development of the human 
race are necessarily aided by references to primitive conditions 
found to exist at the time of first, or early contact with the natives. 
Nowhere, so well as here, is there as valuable a field of Anthropo- 
logical research. Throughout the whole of the Americas, products 
are found of man's primitive handiwork, not dissimilar to objects 
of like form found on other continents, which were used by the 
most primitive races; these consist of objects of stone, or of bone, 
shell, pottery, skins, wood or vegetable fiber, and at times even 
of metal. Such objects are found on the surface, in quarries,, 
workshops, or caves, rock shelters, natural and artificial, in brush 
huts, skin tents, bark dwellings, pueblos, communal houses, at 
times several stories high, often containing oven-like subterranean 
rooms for ceremonial gatherings of societies having formal initia- 
tions. These dwellings and places of worship are usually oriented 
according to the cardinal points ; they are governed by the direc- 
tion of prevailing winds, or the rising and setting of the sun. 
They lived in settlements of great extent, composed of pretentious 
structures of dressed stone or stucco, and temples of great size 
having plazas and market places, grounds for holding fairs and 
ball games, foot races and feasts. Such people are described as 
having organized society and government of a most elaborate 
character, who recognized distinction in rank, whose old men 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS 21 

held councils, sent and received messengers, often those having 
ambassadorial rank, whose agreements bound the actions of con- 
federacies. During formal deliberations with strangers the laws 
of hospitality were usually strictly observed. Smoking on such 
occasions was part of the ceremony on the northern continent, 
whereas in the south human sacrifice took its place. Their dances 
were of various characters, often containing theatrical features, 
though they were usually of a serious religious nature. Their 
deliberations were accompanied by speeches, the results of which 
were usually made public. Runners were despatched, who, in 
case of war being decided upon, notified the enemy by certain 
well known symbols that hostilities had begun, and were con- 
ducted with terrible savagery, though, where possible, only men 
were killed; the lives of women and children being preserved, 
even the men were often enslaved and not killed. Certain colors 
were emblematic of war, other colors of peace, and yet others 
of rejoicing or mourning. The dead enemy was scalped, the 
living, as a rule, tortured upon the return of the war party. In 
the south, tribes held other tribes in subjection and required the 
payment of tribute as the price of a quasi freedom. 

Aboriginal art in stone, in carving, in painting and in wood- 
work was thoroughly typical and of no mean order, the native 
well knew the sources of supply, as well as the artificial fracture 
of stones, now first beginning to be recognized as existing. 
Woven fabrics are known to have been most varied, as was plait- 
ing, netting, wicker-working, in house-building, in erecting weirs 
and traps, in all of which the Amerind appears to have reached the 
limit of available material, as he had done in making string and 
cords, and in the art of knotting and mat-making, and lashing 
and in making fibers so fine as at times to approach thread in 
size. Woven fabrics, in certain localities, attained great excel- 
lence in fineness and ornamentation. Feather work, bird skins 
and painted hides constituted material for clothing, which, how- 
ever, varied from the breech cloth, to complete covering, includ- 
ing the plumed head dresses. 

Arms were commonly primitive, though there are examples 
of unusual types, such as the bolas and the throwing-stick, as well 
as the blow gun, which was also used in certain of the Pacific 
Islands ; slings are oiften mentioned, though the lasso appears to 



22 



INTERNATIONAL, CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS 



be of Spanish origin. However, any of these objects may well 
owe their existence to independent discovery. 

There are innumerable problems yet to decipher, and most of 
them may be simplified by close study of early publications. 
Among the many questions relating to primitive man in America 
may be mentioned the origin and wanderings of the numerous 
nomadic tribes, their use of implements and a comparison of 
their manners and habits with those of primitive races in Europe 
and elsewhere. After a period of over three centuries of a con- 
trary belief, modern students have shown the Indian to> be an 
intensely religious man, something more than merely superstitious. 
By religion I would signify, as defined by J. N. B. Hewitt, a 
system of words, acts or devices, or a combination of these em- 
ployed to obtain welfare, or to avoid ill-fare through the use, 
exercise or favor of the occult power of another body or bodies. 
Everything on earth or in the air or water, all visible and in- 
visible things, tangible and intangible, seen, heard, felt, tasted 
or smelt had to be reckoned with and propitiated. The masks 
of the dancers, as stated by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, among the 
Hopi were parts of ceremonial costumes on particular occasions, 
and even during ceremonies which were conducted with well 
defined and elaborate rituals, where the officiating individual be- 
came the mouthpiece of the God. Such masked dancers are de- 
scribed by early historians as "intimate converse with the devil," 
as "idolatries," the worship of images not recognizing their 
now well known symbolism. Dreams (which were actual hap- 
penings), f eastings, prayers, dancing, smoking and even games 
of chance, formed part of one or the other sacred ceremony. 
The spirits to whom the petitions were offered were good or bad, 
powerful or weak, could hurt and be hurt, and even rewarded 
and punished, as occasion warranted. The elements, plants and 
animals are all people among certain tribes of the northern, if 
not on both continents; they talked among themselves and were 
human, their talk being understood by certain chiefs and priests, 
and even at times by private individuals. Animals were gods in 
one locality, in another were fair game, which allowed itself to be 
captured by his brother man and conversed with him in his sleep, 
but his meat and bones had to be treated ceremonially, or he 
would stop surrendering himself to the people for food. 

World quarters were designated at times by particular animals 



INTERNATIONAL, CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS 23 

representative of the cardinal points; at other times these points 
were represented in colored sand, of feathers or flowers, or of 
corn ears; the savage always appreciated the attractiveness of 
striking colors, the most brilliant examples of this being evidenced 
by exquisite mosaic work. 

The medicine man, who was always a priest, is commonly ridi- 
culed for his treatment of disease, through exorcisms, suckings 
and blowing, by cauterization, by fire or purging, though such 
treatment of the disease compared favorably with that of the 
civilized physician of the 17th century, who> prescribed tobacco 
or the left hind foot of a moose to> cure 700 or more diseases. 

References to the Amerind as a cultivator, provider and pre- 
server of food are numerous. Corn was easily the plant most 
commonly grown, the uses to which it was put being numerous, 
but tobacco, pepper, cocoa, maguey, gourds, melons, etc., are 
often referred to. They were prepared in many ways and served 
for many purposes. Animal food, including birds and fishes, 
and shell fish, played an important part in primitive economy. 
These products were dried in the sun, buccaneered and beaten 
into pemmican. The natives dried the oyster, clam and Crustacea, 
as well as the nut and acorn, and stored water in artificial ponds 
and jars. The many allusions to "fowl" and "fowl of the country" 
probably refer to the now well known turkey. While many things 
were eaten raw, cooking was done in various ways, including 
heating water in vessels with hot stones, baking in mud, etc. 
Superstitions attached to certain foods and we learn that some 
were tabooed. Little is written concerning the seasoning of food, 
though it is stated that they used ashes in some places, and in 
others salt or peppers. The Amerind appears to> have been 
Anthropophagus in all localities, the eating of human flesh being 
too general to be attributed to ceremony, except as his whole 
life was ceremonious. 

His life stamps the Indian, with few exceptions, as a highly 
intelligent individual, though leading a wandering life and often 
exposed to suffer from hunger. His camping place was always 
carefully located near fresh water and neatly sheltered from pry- 
ing eyes, and, where possible, so> located as only to afford approach 
by paths susceptible of ready defence. 

Time was measured by the sun and moon, and nights ; by 
seasons of cold and heat, by the ripening of fruit, the mating or 



24 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS 

migration of birds, animals or fishes. Raids into an enemy's coun- 
try were made so as to allow of an attack at the period of the 
full moon, either in the night or at early dawn, when least ex- 
pected. There are references to irrigation though planting ap- 
pears to have been commonly done on bottom lands, cleaned by 
means of fire or by the overflow of rivers. Seed was dropped 
into holes ; in places a few weeds were pulled and nature did the 
rest. There was much ceremony connected with the gathering 
of the ripened crops. In places the whole community took part, 
or particular societies, or single individuals. The principles oi 
storage were well known; some storehouses were for the whole 
community, others belonged to fraternities or to chiefs, or in- 
dividuals. They varied in size from jugs or baskets to caches 
and structures holding a hundred bushels or more. Carriers ac- 
companied merchants, hunters or war parties, and food was 
cached for the home journey. 

Clothing and ornamentation varied according to locality, some 
individuals being naked, dyed perhaps or painted; tatooing is 
so often referred to, accompanied by references to distinguishing 
marks on the body, as to suggest its having at some period been 
a common custom. Individual stature and color appears to have 
varied, as did hair-dressing in style, which differed among men 
and women, as did that of ornamentation in general. The com- 
monest material used in ornamentation were stone, shell, bone and 
pottery ; wood and metal were also employed, as well as the 
pearls, though the latter were usually discolored by exposure to 
the fire. 

References to the proficiency of the native in the use of his 
feet, to the wearing of the sandal and moccasin are as numerous, 
as they are to different musical instruments, which are said to 
have been employed and at times, give rise to question. 

There was an elaborate code of social observances and require- 
ments, often of the most complicated character established, the 
violations of which were severely punished. There were many 
classes referred to, but were more imaginary than real; their 
camps were, when ceremonially located, so arranged according 
to clans or families, as to be known to members of these clans, 
strangers to their inmates. 

Among the American languages there does not appear evidence 
of relationship with any foreign tongue. 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS 



25 



Authors show the Indian to have been skilful in the use of 
implements, and certain objects of elaborate form are by them 
commonly attributed to Indian origin, which there is little doubt 
were made with the tools of the whites ; others refer to the Indian 
as being as far advanced in artistic skill as the European mechanic 
of the 17th century. 

As hunter, warior or fisherman the Amerind trailed his enemy 
or game and captured his fish with a skill seldom equaled by the 
whites. His arms were skilfully made and dirTered in their pur- 
pose, being pointed and bladed with suitable material. It is sup- 
posed he poisoned his weapons, though there is reason to doubt 
the accuracy of the belief, though stupefying drugs were used to 
catch fish. The hammer and flaking tool, shaped, often by the 
assistance of fire, almost any material worked by the native. We 
learn that they had many trades, and even tamed and domesticated 
certain birds and animals. They knew the use of the blowpipe 
and melted gold and silver and knew the most suitable woods for 
their many implements. 

Polygamy was common and they had in places a regular priest- 
hood. They had made great strides towards the discovery of an 
alphabet; they had a unique system of counting, and had devel- 
oped a sign language spoken among tribes not speaking each 
others tongue. These people had developed quite a trade or sys- 
stem of barter, and though they had no currency, on the 
advent of the whites, glass beads, wampum and skins and tobacco 
became such, and even so recognized by legislative enactment. 
Ceremony and ceremonial observances accompanied birth, mar- 
riage, death and burial. They had markets and fairs, and officers 
who decided disputes arising in them. News was announced 
by town criers. Sedentary people made large statues, as the 
nomads did small ones. They were skilful in boat construction, 
and the management of it with the paddle, though there is doubt 
whether they used sails to their boats. The Spaniards palmed 
off glass on the natives who supposed it to be stone ; but we early 
find the native palming ofT parrots of one kind for those of another 
on the Spaniard. Men and women each performed work suit- 
able to their sex, the man being the one to provide, while the 
woman prepared the food and cared for the household matters. 

It were easy to enumerate additional matters of interest in the 
study of Anthropology as developed by early writings and recent 



26 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS 



investigations, but enough has been shown, it is hoped, to develop 
the value of systematic study in enabling man to study the de- 
velopment of the race. 

(The use of the word Amerind is intended as an abbreviation 
of " American Indian.") This definition is given in view of the 
discussion raised by its use in the paper. 



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